Supervision And Consultation Scenarios Essay Example

Oversight And Consultation Scenarios Essay Mara is divorced person of 36 enduring structure very sadness has gone to a physiotherapist for counsel. She was relocated structure Nigeria at her mid twenty and got marriage a Nigerian people in US. Because of physical and mental maltreatment by the spouse she sees separate. She has two kids has a place with her, lived in a little loft. By calling she was a Medical Technician. By birth she was a Nigerian. Be that as it may, it isn't clear in the given situation what was her accept of confidence. Religion Faith is likewise a fundamental factor for the oversight of a Mental Health Patient. Be that as it may, the depiction we can't get any image of his confidence. In this situation, it is referenced that the spouse truly and intellectually mishandled. In any case, they’re not a sign the idea of Mara’s misuse, which is required for giving treatment. It is a typical situation of each two American relationships presently finishes in separation and one in each five individuals will be walloped by wretchedness sooner or later in their life.â When we put these measurements one next to the other and contemplate the negative reasoning and conduct run of the mill of despondency, it’s nothing unexpected that there’s a solid association between the natures of torment and the picking up of the downturn. We will compose a custom paper test on Supervision And Consultation Scenarios explicitly for you for just $16.38 $13.9/page Request now We will compose a custom paper test on Supervision And Consultation Scenarios explicitly for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Recruit Writer We will compose a custom paper test on Supervision And Consultation Scenarios explicitly for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Recruit Writer As Mara looked for proficient assistance, the separation may well take a dive.â But what makes her disease such a deadly weapon is its ability for camouflage.â She slide into gloom has no clue what’s the issue with her, so she doles out fault for the manner in which she feels to the individuals nearest to her.â Her non-discouraged accomplices, similarly in obscurity regarding the genuine reason for what resembles a character change for the more awful, respond to the torrent of analysis and disdain coming their way by reacting in kind. A definitive outcome is the pointless disappointment of a great deal of in any case great connections. In the wake of taking the Depression to Janet Thomas bone up on gloom of Mara most likely be amazed to discover that outrage is more average of melancholy than quiet trouble, she have to defeated the angered denialâ â€Å"What, she discouraged? She should be crazy!â Her accomplice is probably going to declare. Janet work to urge her to look for proficient assistance. In any case, we can't avoid grievances about circumstance, analysis and childishness and spotlight rather on depression’s physical side effects, for example, a sleeping disorder and loss of hunger and vitality. Be that as it may, it’s likewise imperative to shield her from the rock solid passionate mileage that definitely comes about because of living with somebody else’s misery. Attempting to continue convincing her over long periods of wretchedness that Janet can keep it together until treatment is acknowledged and does something amazing can be debilitating and depleting. Breaking down the administrative and Consultative Presented to the downturn victims, studying a recognizable scene and thinking that its inert and expect that their absence of joy is an indication of fatigue and signals the requirement for change. Mara at the outlandish and apparently illogical treatment dispensed to her by the manager and Consultant they love, regard, and thought they knew well. Assessment the Effectiveness: John Gonsiorek is an of employee at Capella University with 25 years of training he has immense involvement with management and counsel exercises. Janet Thomas is in Private Practice at Paul, Minnesota. He is giving oversight and discussion in the field of psychological well-being. He is likewise effective in Clinical oversight and meeting just as morals. To remark on their viability and treatment and polished skill, first let we shows the standard Responsibility of the Consultant and Supervisor to the Client, at the same time we bring up, which of them are followed and which are definitely not. Duty OF CONSULTANTS TOWARD CLIENTS: This area alludes to practices and proportions of individual as well as gathering counseling connections. In this client† is characterized as: the person(s) going to a specialist for direction or data so as to help an individual engaged with a cultic relationship. At the point when the customer chooses to seek after a mediation planned for helping the concerned individual revaluate their promise to the gathering rehearsing thought change, the included individual turns into the essential customer. A. General Standards for the Consulting Relationship 1) The Consultants essential duty is to regard the uprightness and advance the government assistance of the client(s), regardless of whether the client(s) is (are) helped independently or in a gathering relationship. 2) When working with customers, a buying in advisor keeps away from partiality because of race, religion, sex, political association, social or monetary status, or decision of way of life. 3) If a Consultant can't advance help under any conditions, the individual in question will make fitting to a referrals as quickly as time permits. 4) The expert won't utilize their counseling relationship for individual needs or to encourage strict, political, or business interests. 5) The advisor won't utilize strategies or methods, for example, neuron-phonetics programming, spellbinding or Ericksonian trance or different procedures like those utilized by religion bunches without completely educated consent regarding the customer. 6) Consultants perceive their limits of fitness and give just those administrations to which they are qualified via preparing or experience. Experts should just acknowledge those cases for which they are qualified. 7) The counseling relationship must be one in which customer self-course is empowered. The advisor must continue this job continually and not become a leader for the customer or make inside the customer a future reliance on the expert. 8)The Human Services field is fitting progressively mind boggling and concentrated. Some idea change specialists can manage each elective issue, and numerous potential customers experience issues deciding the skill of thought change experts. Choosing one is troublesome as a result of the absence of information about relevant capabilities. Now and again, stress itself may impede judgment. 9) The advisor must tell the customer of the reasons, objectives, a standard of strategy and restrictions that may influence the relationship at or before the time the counseling relationship is started. 10) Before a mediation can be started, buying in experts and client(s) must concede to the meaning of the issue, the objectives of the intercession, and the scope of potential outcomes. 11) The expert must refresh the concerned party that should a customer be kept from leaving the site of the interview or genuinely controlled in any way. 12) Obtaining the customers, an advisor may decide to talk with some other expertly able individual about a customer or parts of the circumstance. In the event that the customer will not permit advisor to look for outside interview when the specialist regards such conference vital, the expert ought to consider ending with that customer. 13) The advisor is occupied with individual or gathering counseling, he ought to be conscious of emotional wellness assets accessible. 14) Ethical conduct alongside proficient partners, including experts buying in to these moral gauges and those not buying in, must be normal consistently. At the point when data is had that raises question with regards to the moral conduct of expert associates, regardless of whether the advisors or companion specialists, the part should make a move to endeavor to redress such a condition. Such activity will utilize the methods set up by these moral measures. 15) The advisor must have a serious extent of mindfulness of their own qualities, information, aptitudes, constraints, and needs in towards within a helping relationship that includes dynamic limit and basic reasoning abilities, and that the focal point of consideration of the relationship ought to be on the issues to be settled and not on the person(s) introducing the issue. 16) A double associations with customers that may aggravate the advisors objectivity and expert judgment must be kept away from or potentially the counseling relationship ended through referral to another skillful expert. 17) The advisors don't overlook or associate in inappropriate behavior, which is characterized as purposeful remarks, or physical contacts of a sexual sort. 18) The specialist will maintain a strategic distance from a sexual contact with customers. Sexual associations with customers are unscrupulous and are prohibited. 19) When the specialist infers that the person in question can't be of expert help to the customer, the advisor must end the relationship. 20) An advisor has a commitment to pull back from a counseling relationship on the off chance that it is assumed that business will bring about infringement of the Ethical Standards. 21) The advisors go over a circumstance in that is proper moral conduct isn't clear, they should look for the exhortation from proficient people. B. Privacy and Records: 1) The Records of the counseling relationship including meeting notes, family inward data, correspondence, tape chronicles, electronic information stockpiling, and different reports are to be viewed as secret data. Exposure to others of such material must happen just upon the communicated composed assent of the customer. 2) The information got from a counseling relationship for motivations behind expert preparing or examination will be restricted to content that can be camouflaged to ensure the personality o

Is Prostitution Deviant? Essay

Prostitution saw through the social-clash worldview, a â€Å"framework for building hypothesis that considers society to be a field of disparity that creates strife and change† (Macionis-Society), would be that the demonstration of prostitution is a consequence of an inconsistent circulation of cash, force, instruction, and social noticeable quality. Prostitution is freak, in that it is an activity that is outside the standard of the acknowledged principles of our general public. Be that as it may, regardless of whether prostitution is degenerate or not will be not the beginning spot of the social-clash worldview. The social-clash scholar would make no judgment however rather inquire as to why. The social-clash worldview would examine the social structure the individual was brought up in, for example, the training level and in this manner the open doors accessible for the person to pick up aptitudes important to achieve accomplishment in the public eye. It would then cast faul t on the social factors as opposed to poor decisions or absence of vision of the individual. Basically, a whore would simply be a survivor of things out of their control. Prostitution would be seen as a vital bread of inopportunity as opposed to unethical behavior. A quality of the social-clash worldview in review strife is that so as to change the example of prostitution or any negative matter of society we should see what frames the issue so as to forestall it. Anyway one perspective gives us a tight answer for countless issues and different issues other than social inopportunity, similar to ethics, values and a people character should likewise be tended to in requested to completely fix any issue. In spite of the fact that we experience a daily reality such that communicates moral relativism, there is as yet target truth and there are still things which are good and bad. In spite of the fact that prostitution may have been constrained upon some as a methods for endurance, it is still off-base and ruinous. The outcomes therapeutically are gigantic for this sort of wide spread conduct. Despite the fact that we can feel for the individuals who have wound up in this sort of way of life, we should show them better approaches for living just as gi ving new chances.

Plato Book V Is Plato a Feminist

In book V of Plato’s republican Plato is plainly a women's activist in spite of the fact that he doesn't hold ladies totally equivalent to men. Truth be told Plato expresses that most of ladies are sub-par compared to all men, however not all ladies were second rate. Plato was surely a women's activist, however his women's activist perspectives were because of choices made for what he thought was in wellbeing of the great city. A women's activist is a depicted as a promoter for women’s rights and legitimate assurance. Inside book V of the Republic, Plato advocates balance in various highlights of life inside the great city for ladies. The equivalent training of man and lady is one element of the great city which Plato wanted to place in real life. Plato felt this was essential not founded on women's activist perspectives, yet because of the way that ladies were potential gatekeepers of the great city so they ought to have equivalent instruction as the male watchmen. Because of the way that Plato calls for equivalent training of the two genders unmistakably arranges him as a women's activist. Plato states in the Republic that most of ladies are second rate compared to men, he later expresses that a few ladies might be equipped for being equivalent to or even better than certain men. With this reality being, Plato feels that ladies should likewise be given an equivalent chance to administer the state because of their potential prevalence over men. In this manner/Plato called for equivalent instruction of people in the great city (Is Plato a Feminist? ). Another point examined in Book V of the Republic was the Nature of a human’s soul. Plato felt that since ladies had substandard physical highlights then men didn't imply that ladies ought to be managed ignored from their inclination. As it were, if a man and lady both had watchman nature, the lady ought not be disregarded because of her sexual orientation. Plato’s women's activist perspectives are extraordinarily communicated when he clarifies that ladies could be appropriate to oversee the great state. To the greatest advantage of the great city Plato felt that potential watchmen or government officials of the great city ought not be restricted dependent on their sexual orientation because of his conviction that all people include a specific nature inside them paying little heed to their sex (Is Plato a Feminist? ). By and by this women's activist conviction depicted by Plato was not licensed to his energy for women’s correspondence, yet is spoken to by his feeling in protecting the great city. Plato would not be viewed as the perfect women's activist; his choices in giving the ladies of the great city balance were not made to the greatest advantage of the ladies. Plato women's activist choices were made because of what he thought would be in wellbeing of the great city. All through the Republic Book V Plato communicates his perspectives and conclusions on various issues identifying with the great city. Despite the fact that Plato expresses that doesn't hold ladies equivalent to men in predominantly all perspectives quantifiable he is still without a doubt a women's activist. The primary part of Plato’s woman's rights is that he gave ladies rights for what he thought was to the greatest advantage of the great city, not the ladies. Despite the fact that Plato would not be viewed as the perfect women's activist he is clearly a women's activist in any case. Plato would not be what many consider to be a perfect women's activist. Be that as it may, while responding to the inquiry if Plato is a women's activist or not, he and choices he made with respect to the great city are verifiably women's activist. Plato’s perspectives on women's liberation are not an immediate aftereffect of worry of women’s rights, however are straightforwardly identified with Plato’s thought of a definitive decent city.

Interpersonal Nursing Team Conflicts Term Paper - 4125 Words

Interpersonal Nursing Team Conflicts (Term Paper Sample) Content: Interpersonal Nursing Team ConflictsName:Institution:AbstractConflicts are inevitable in a team setting. Interpersonal team conflict occurs among team members. Some of the causes of team conflict include different opinions, personality clashes, miscommunication, working schedules, underlying stress, and tension among others. In nursing career, if interpersonal nursing team conflicts are not resolved in the best way, they can lead to poor delivery of services to patients, poor working relationship among nursing team, and stress to the concerned parties. Various methods can be used to resolve interpersonal nursing team conflicts. They include collaboration, competition, accommodation, and avoidance. This research paper looks at the interpersonal nursing team conflicts with special interest in their causes, effect, and suggests ways of resolving them.Keywords: Interpersonal conflict, nursing teamInterpersonal Nursing Team ConflictsIntroductionToday, working in teams is c ommon as workers join virtually, cross functionally and autonomously. A team is a small group comprising mostly of 3 to 10 members who distinguish themselves mutually as a group and they have some common goals and objectives. When one or more members of the group differ with each other, Intra-group conflict is said to emerge. Managing a team is a difficult task, which involves high organization stakes and expectations, enormous financial undertakings, involving various stakeholders and the capacity to handle diversified teams and members in a professional way.The nursing profession is a career that involves dealing with a number of complex, burdening and demanding situations. This is due to the workload, emotional demands, and working in shifts (Wlodarczyk Lazarewicz, 2011, p.847). To have a smooth and a conducive working environment, nursing is founded on joint relationships and interactions with both clients and fellow workers. In the operating rooms and boardrooms, staffs are ex pected to work jointly in teams in order to realize their common goals and objectives (Greer et al, 2012, p.935). However, when more than one professional observes issues from a dissimilar point of view or there are differences caused by oneà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬s opinion, interests, beliefs and background, conflict may arise. Although many regard conflict as a negative issue, experience in conflict resolution can lead to positive results for nurses, their workmates, and clients. However, if it is not managed effectively it can hamper a nurseà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬s capability to deliver quality services to the patients and can escalate into cruelty and abuse. Therefore, nurses are required to be aware of the processes in which conflicts can rise.By nature, conflict is a typical state, which can be either positive or negative. When conflicts are used for individual gain or are directed to harm another member of the team, it acts as a destructive force. For the purpose of this paper, conflict can be define d as the condition arising from differing opinions and/or disagreements in interests between two or more members of a team. In a typical team setting, reasons for the occurrence of differences between members are two-fold. First, there exists interpersonal diversity in every aspect such as age, sex, race, educational level and expertise, opinions, beliefs and cultural backgrounds. Second, affiliation of members in terms of positions, roles, and status can lead to their differences.There is need for researchers to analyze the scope of interpersonal nursing team conflicts and come up with suggestions and solutions on how to handle and manage these conflicts and alleviate their adverse effects and at the same time harnessing benefits from them. This paper analyses the scope of interpersonal nursing team conflicts with special focus on the nature of nursing team conflicts, their causes, their impact, and possible resolutions to this nursing leadership problem.Background InformationInter personal conflicts at the workplace arise when two or more persons in a team or group with common perspectives, goals, and objectives fall short of sharing similar views thereby having diversified interests, and interferes with accomplishment of set goals and objectives by other members of the group. It could also occur because of issues unrelated to tasks such as demographic and group differences. The conflicting parties are incapable or reluctant to accomplish the expectations of one another. Conflicts differ in their nature due to the issues concerned, the character and relationship between the parties, the circumstance, the methods used to wage the conflict, and results. These elements among others determine the degree of constructiveness or destructiveness of the conflict.Types of conflictsConstructive conflict arises when interdependent parties express their differences without being hostile to each other and both parties are committed to resolve their differences. In this cas e, the benefits that arise from the conflict exceed the expenses. Productive and equally valuable shared decisions are generated. In constructive conflicts, the method is equally important to the outcome. The parties involved in the conflict come together to redefine and enhance their relationship for mutual benefits. In constructive conflict, the goals of both parties are elastic and both parties believe they can triumph. Whenever interdependent parties have opposing views and opinions, they try to find a universal link between them and use it to reach a common decision. In this case, the involved parties acknowledge the disagreements and willing to compromise. There is a sound flow of negotiations willingness to transform. In the place of work, constructive conflict brings about open communication in the team and leads to superior ideas and decisions. The relationship between the employees themselves and their seniors is enhanced.Destructive conflicts arise when interdependent par ties are engaged in actions and/or behaviors resulting in increased aggression rather than resolving their differences. In this case, a conflict amplifies in scale and tends to turn out to be self-perpetuating. The outcomes are destructive whenever they are used unilaterally without regarding the interest of the other parties involved. The conflicting parties become inflexible and assume that the other parties involved must experience defeat. Conflicting parties surrender to individual attacks, bullying and a universal character of antagonism. Destructive conflict overlooks the actual issues between the disagreeing parties. It occurs due to power struggle whereby one party is resolute to win with particular personal gain. Poor conflict resolution limits optimistic interaction and gives way to destructive conflict. The source of destructive conflict is the feeling of inadequacy and desperation. Destructive conflict promotes inequity power discrepancy and spoils relationships. This ki nd of conflict can lead to absenteeism of the affected parties. The parties affected pessimistically lose focus, their productivity is reduced, and their self-esteem may go down considerably.Disruptive conflict occurs when an individual cares about his/her egos, and have desire to dominate on others. Work may halt as parties in a team seek to protect themselves from the manipulative desires of the disruptor. This kind of attack is characterized by rigidity and domination attitudes. The sole goal of the disruptor is to fragment a team with an agenda of controlling the team.Analysis of the Causes of ConflictsConflict may arise from a number of factors, and for effective resolution and management, understanding these factors is critical. Alleged breaching of faith and trust can lead to differences between parties. Individuals in a team trust and have faith in other members of the team. When that trust and confidence is infringed, it can generate emotional responses that can escalate in to conflict. A good relationship is founded on trust, which enhances confidence and security. Another cause of conflicts between parties is the existence of unresolved differences. Differences between individuals are normal but when they are not resolved, bitterness remains in force. In case of another disagreement, memories of unresolved disagreements explode with force. Therefore, it is essential to resolve differences between parties as soon as they arise and curb their continuation (Singh Antony, 2006, p.3). Poor communication is another cause of conflicts. The capability to communicate is a common skill that is used to pass information between team members. When the exchanged information is not clear and is inconsistent, disagreement may occur. Wrong delivery of information sometimes leads to erroneous activities and if no one is willing to be accountable, conflict will emerge.Clashing of personality is another source of conflicts in groups. Every individual is different from one another. Personality differences are brought about by natural sets and they define the strength of an individual but they can be a source of disagreements in teams. Individual values and beliefs help them to distinguish what is wrong and what is right and make the right decision. These beliefs are developed from cultural backgrounds and life experiences and they shape the behavior of an individual. The different values and beliefs between individuals in a team can result in conflict if not managed properly. Stress and tension among workmates that are caused by demands that sometime go beyond individual capacity to deal with them (Guidroz, Wang Perez, 2012, p.70 ). Working in an environment that is not conducive can result in conflicts between parties. When individuals are not aware of the future and resources are scarce, conflict is inevitable. A threat to the status of an individual can cause disagreements. The status of ...

A streetcar Named Desire Socratic Seminar Questions

Drama Unit Socratic Seminar Questions Part 1: A Streetcar Named Desire 1. Blanche who is homeless, comes to her sister’s house at the beginning. Blanche had been a schoolteacher, married Allan, a man she later discovered to be gay. Her reactions to his sexual orientation caused him to commit suicide. Lonely, she becomes a prostitute, who loses her teaching career when her sexual relationship with a teenager is found out. After the family plantation Belle Reve is lost, she turns to her little sister Stella, who lives in with her husband Stanley in a poor area of New Orleans. She is a very deluded character; She hides her past and fragility behind her Southern aristocrat clothes and manners and is very harsh and mean to Stanley, calling him†¦show more content†¦Stella is a static character because she still chooses Stanley over her sister. It has always been Stanley, and it always will be Stanley. Even when Blanche claims that Stanley raped her, she still does not believe her own flesh and blood. 2. Blanche is the protagonist, had a great tragedy in her early life. She fell in love young and married, and discovered her husband was gay. Shortly after, her husband died and left her a young widow. â€Å"And then the searchlight which had been turned on the world was turned off again and never for one moment since has there been any light that’s stronger than this—kitchen—candle.†(scene6) After her sister left, she had to take care of family members. Their deaths resulted in the loss of her familys Belle Reve, and Blanche being displaced and thrown into a society she did not understand. After all this tragedy, Blanche preferred to live in her own made up reality of denial where she is still the belle of the party; and life is full of small talk and manners. She tries to display herself as innocent. Stanley is the antagonist, he is violent and an enemy to the Protagonist, Blanche. â€Å"He acts like an animal, has an animal’s habits! Eats like one, moves like one, talks like one!†(scene 4) He hits Stella, and rapes Blanche. â€Å"We’ve had this date with each other from the beginning!† (scene10). It is also found that Stanley also reveals â€Å"the survival of the fittest,† in

Art Piece 2 Arch Of Titus Essay - 1525 Words

Art piece 2: Arch of Titus Dated: This art piece was dated Basic outline: Titus emperor who died Built by his bro, Domitian Triumphal arch Passageway on Sacred Way Inscriptions, friezes telling war stories. Details: The domitian built this arch on the road leading into the Roman Forum to honor his brother, the emperor Titus, who became a god after his death. Victories fill the spandrels of the arcuated passageway. Freestanding/ triumphal arch Material: The concrete and white marble, (originally topped with bronze statue), made of concrete (with volcanic ash-allows piece to be underwater/dry quicker) and faced with marble Color: The arch of Titus is white Shape: The monumental structure in the shape of an archway often designed to span road; consists of two massive piers connected by an arch and crowned with entablature attic where a statue may stand on. Technique: engaged fluted columns frame the passageway spandrels-triangular space between outer curves of arch, depict victories Form: The faces of the arch are columns in the composite order supporting an entablature, the inscription on the uppermost declares that the Senate and the Roman people erected the monument to honor titus, a relief on the inside depicts Titus soldiers flaunting the captured sacred treasures of Jerusalem as they carry it through the streets of Rome the soldiers are headed toward the right and are turned obliquely to project into the viewers own space, this allowing living spectators a sense ofShow MoreRelatedArch of titus Essay1445 Words   |  6 Pagesï » ¿ The Arch provides one of the few contemporary depictions of Temple period artifacts.[6][7]  The seven-branched  menorah  and  trumpets  are clearly depicted. It became a symbol of the Jewish  diaspora. In a later era, Pope  Paul IV  made it the place of a yearly  oath of submission. Jews refuse to walk under it.[citation needed]  The menorah depicted on the Arch served as the model for the menorah used on the emblem of the state of Israel.[citation needed]However, when the existence of modern State of IsraelRead MoreHbr When Your Core Business Is Dying74686 Words   |  299 Pagesable ing e f mi elop ntries. Dev cou ds o d renew †¢ ndre an in 26 g hu rnative ply. y i tt i n nerg mm y to alte rsify sup y wn e †¢ Co uall e ur o fficienc n o div an gies t de o e e ma sing our ener , hav a 1992 by incre ce †¢ Sin further go 4%. by 2 n: Take eps g St o brin vron ear t Che nay billio CHEVRON is a registered trademark of Chevron Corporation The CHEVRON HALLMARK and HUMAN ENERGY are trademarks of Chevron Corporation  ©2006 Chevron Corporation A l rights reserved APRIL 2007

Current Issues in Sales Promotion free essay sample

There are several reasons explaining this phenomena: Increased brand parity and price sensitivity of consumer with more brand choices available to the consumer and with the fact that product differences are becoming less and less apparent, consumers are becoming more and more reliant to the price and price incentives. This goes hand in hand with another reason of increasing sales promotions budget decreased brand loyalty. Consumers are getting used to the fact that almost always at least one brand category is on sale or on a sales promotional offer. Another reason is coming from the routs of corporate culture and the reward and promotion strategy within corporations in the conditions of severe competition there is increasing pressure on brand managers to show fast results in terms of increased sales and nothing is as effective in short run as sales promotions to achieve this goal. Another explanation has to do with the consumer responsiveness to money saving options for example the results of NCH Consumer Survey indicate that on average 80. 5 percent of consumers in US used coupons over the period of 1996-1999. Shimp 1993). One more reason for increasing sales promotion importance is that many product categories on the market are in the mature stage and according to the product life cycle theory, sales promotions are extremely effective in maturity stage of the product helping to boost sales. (Blattberg, Neslin 1990). Finally the reason that is very relevant to highly competitive markets, where companies find themselves constantly fighting for the smallest piece of market share prisoners dilemma spiral which is very similar to a price war situation. Manufacturers are locked into defensive reactive escalation of sale promotional expenditures. If one company cuts its sales promotions, it will suffer short-term loss, chances are that competitors will take advantage of that, if the company increases its sales promotional expenditures short term increase of sales might be very small because competitor reacts. (Blattberg, Neslin 1990) Because of highly practical importance of sales promotion the number of publications in trade press on sales promotion has increased dramatically over the past decade. However the same is not true for academic press. Though there is a certain increase of articles on the topic in the academic journals, there still are a lot of potential areas for research that didnt receive enough attention. The purpose of this paper is to reveal what is really known and proven about sales promotions, to systematize knowledge already available, discuss different models available in literature and to identify possible directions of future research. Please note that this paper is not intended to discuss the issues relevant to each particular element of sales promotion, rather it is focused on the general issues and characteristics shared by all (or most) of the components. Uncertain Definitions of Sales Promotions Systematization of knowledge on sales promotion I believe should start from systematizing the definitions of concept. There is lack of conformity in methodology and hence in the definition of what can be considered sales promotion. (Kotler 1983, Levy 1971, Shimp 1993). The word promotion comes from a Latin word meaning to move forward. So, in this case any tool(s), method(s), technique (s) that stimulates the growth of the sales can be considered a part of sales promotion. However this is not that simple. There are number of different definitions focusing on various characteristics of sales promotion. This diversification as it will be shown later plays very important role in identifying objectives and models for promotions. 1. Sales promotion consists of a diverse collection of incentive tools, mostly short-term designed to stimulate quicker and/or greater purchase of a particular product by consumers or the trade. (Kotler, 1988) 2. Sales promotion is the direct inducement or incentive to the sales force, the distributor or the consumer with the primary objective of creating and immediate sale (Shultz, Robinson 1982) 3. Sales promotion is the methods or techniques for creating public acceptance of or interest in a product, usually in addition to standard merchandising techniques, such as advertising, and personal selling; generally consisting of the offer of free samples, gifts made to purchaser etc. (Random House Unabridged Dictionary 1983) 4. Sales promotion represents those marke ting efforts that are supplementary in nature, are conducted for a limited period of time and seek to induce buying (Davis, 1981) b. Sales promotions are all marketing activities that attempt to stimulate to quick buyer action or attempt to promote immediate sales of product (Shimp, 1993) All those definitions are stressing different aspects of sales promotions and all of them are correct ones. There are several common characteristics that might be drown out of these definitions. (Blattberg, Neslin 1990) A) Sales promotions are action focused the emphasis is on consumer to make some action in a limited period of time. B) Sales promotions are marketing events they all happen within marketing strategy of the company/ organization. As early as in 1967 researchers were concerned that interaction of the promotions with other elements of marketing mix should not be ignored (Engel 1967). Because promotions include so many difference tools and mechanisms there is an ongoing threat of viewing sales promotional techniques in isolation from other marketing mix elements. C) Sales promotions are designed to have a direct impact on behavior. It is argued in the literature that while advertising goes through the process of cognition and then influences an action, promotion is believed to work directly on behavior. Also, sales promotion gives extrinsic reason to buy a product, whereas advertising focuses to internal qualities or brand equity of the product. A common assumption is that advertising, word-of-mouthor the salesperson has infromed the consumer about the product, while sales promotion gives them additional reasons to buy. Taking into account the points discussed above the summarized definition of sales promotion can be presented as follows: Sales promotion is an action-focused marketing event whose purpose is to have a direct impact on the behavior of the firms customers. Blattberg, Neslin 1990). One of the aspects that is not reflected in this operational definition is the short-term effect of promotion, this issue is still under discussion and will be addressed later in the paper. Forms and Objectives of sales promotion There are many sales promotional techniques (and the number is still growing with the development of new ways to reach consumers), but they can apparently be reduced to 12 classical and widely used. The rest of the techniques usually include some kind of combination of these 12 most used techniques of sales promotion. . Sampling the use of various distribution methods to deliver actual or trail size products to consumers with the purpose to initiate trial. 2. Coupons A promotional device that provides a price-off to consumer upon redeeming the coupon 3. Trade incentives incentives that are given to retail managers and sales people for performing tasks such as displaying merchandise or selling certain lines of merchandise. 4. Trade allowances deals that are offered to retailers for performing activities in support of manufacturer brand 5. Price-offs promotion which entails a reduction in the brands regular price. 6. In, on, and near-packs (and reusable containers) specially designed pieces that retailers give to consumers who purchase the promoted product. 7. Free-in the mail premiums a promotion in which consumers receive premium item from the sponsoring manufacturer in return for submitting a required number of proofs of purchase. 8. Self-liquidating premiums a method where the consumer mails in a stipulated number of proofs of a purchase along with the fee to cover manufacturers costs of shipping and handling of premium item. From manufacturers point of view this form of promotion is cost free, and therefore the name is self-litigating. 9. Contests and sweepstakes a form of consumer oriented promotion in which winners receive prizes, cash, or merchandise. 10. Refund offers A cash reimbursement to the consumer by the manufacturer whose product the consumer has purchased. 11. Bonus packs Extra-quantities of a product that company gives to consumers at a regular price. 12. Stamp plans and continuity premiums type of promotion where the consumer is getting rewarded for continuos use or repetitive purchase of a product/service, f. x frequent flyer programs. These techniques can be trade or consumer oriented. Because sales promotional tools are so varied in form, no single unified objective can be identified for them. There are three major contributions of sales promotions that have practical influence of the objectives of promotion: (Kotler 1988) 1. Communication promotions gain attention and usually prov ide information that may lead the consumer to the product 2. Incentive they incorporate some concession, inducement or contribution designed to represent value to the receiver 3. Invitation promotions include a distinct invitation to engage in the transaction now. Within these three major goals that sales promotion help to accomplish, specific objectives might be reach of new users, reinforcement loyalty of old users, increase product usage, introduction of new product, increase distribution channels, Obtain trade support and improve or built trade relationship. For quick reference please see Table 1. Table 1: Source: Shimp T, Promotional Management and Marketing Communications [pic] As it is mentioned in the beginning of the paper, the primary objective is to identify common traits of sales promotional techniques and not each of its elements separately. So, Ill proceed talking about the objectives of sales promotions and what sales promotion can do for the company and what it cant do. What sales promotion can do? Myth vs. Reality This part of the paper organized as following each point is presented and then analyzed in respect of the research done in that area. Most of the points are very logical assumptions that anyone in the marketing and advertising believes in, however I couldnt trace the research done to justify some of those points, that is the reason that several of the issues are just mentioned without overview of the research findings in the area. These are potential white spots of sales promotion and would the research be conducted some of the very interesting findings may come out. Some of this points have been proven practically by the industry, but that kind of research was beyond the scope of academic literature review. Consumer oriented deals 1. Sales promotion can obtain trial of the product. Innovate or Die nowadays may be the slogan for many companies, especially in food and health industry. This view is reflected in the number of new products introduced yearly; New Product News reports that in 1990s, there were 13,244 introductions with 10,301 introductions coming from food categories. In 1999, the comparable figure for the food category was 9,814, with the highest introductions in condiments, candy, bakery foods, dairy products, and beverages. The evidence is clear: retailers are confronted yearly with large numbers of introductions in a wide variety of categories. (Desiraju 2001) Obviously in these conditions one of the best ways to get your product noticeable to consumer and to make them switch from other brands is sales promotions techniques. 2. Sales promotion can encourage repeat usage of the product or increase product usage by loading consumers. The first part of this argument is supported by Neslin, Quelich, Henderson 1982 the results of their research show that acceleration of purchase quantity is stronger among heavy users that light users. . Invigorate the use of mature product 4. Sales promotion can affect purchase acceleration Here two aspects of purchase acceleration should be considered increased quantity and decreased interpurchase time. (Neslin, Quelich, Henderson 1982). However there is a very important question how these two aspects will influence (counteract) each other due to the stockpiling effect . As it was shown in the above mentioned research (see also Gupta 1988), purchase acceleration is predominantly exhibited in increased purchase quantities rather than shortened interpurchase times. 5. Sales promotion can introduce a new or improved product or different packaging 6. Sales promotion can be used to neutralized competitive advertising or sales promotion 7. In general sales promotions can built on brand sales more rapidly than advertising. At was discussed earlier in this paper sales promotion tend to produce sharp and fast increase in sales of the brand. This however was opposed by the issue of short term and long term impact of the promotion, discussed later on in the paper. In addition to that one issue that is worth discussing here is cost /sales ratio for advertising and promotion. Empirical study has shown that variation in the firm level ratio of advertising and promotion is the function of market share, market growth rate and the interaction between the two. And though replication of the study did not confirm the results of the original research, this is still considered as one of the possible explanations of the variations of the levels of advertising and promotional expenditures for different companies. (Balasubramanian, Kumar 1990, Ailawadi, Farris, Parry 1997; Balasubramanian, Kumar 1997) Trade oriented Deals . Sales promotion can obtain feature pricing, displays, and other dealer in-store support 10. Sales promotions can help to increase or reduce trade inventories 11. Sales promotion can help to expand distribution. What sales promotions cant do Consumer oriented deals 1. Sales promotion cannot built brand loyalty or enhance brand image. While the first part of the statement is now perceived as axiom, there are disputes over the fact whether sales prom otions have negative effect on brand equity and brand evaluation. The classic research done by Dobson, Tybout and Sternal (1978)argued that use of promotion decrease the brand evaluation. This was supported by self-perception theory psychological model of response to sales promotion suggested by Sawyer and Dickson (1984). However the further research on this issue (Neslin and Showmaker 1989; Scott Davis, J. Inman, L. McAllister 1992) shows the absence of the negative effect on the brand evaluations. It is actually suggested that with low involvement product category promotions might actually have positive influence on brand evaluation Scott Davis, J. Inman, L. McAllister 1992). 2. Sales promotion can not reverse a declining sales trend According to research done probability of repurchase after purchasing on deal will vary according to the type of sales promotion and the cues that these promotion sent. (Sawyer and Dickson 1984) 3. Sales promotion can not change basic consumer non-acceptance of the product 4. Sales promotion can not compensate for inadequate levels of consumer advertising 5. Sales promotion cannot overcome product problems in pricing, packaging, quality or performance. Trade 1. Sales promotion cannot compensate for a poorly trained sales force 2. Sales promotion cannot overcome poor product distribution 3. Sales promotion cannot compensate for a lack of consumer advertising http://www. ciadvertising. org/student_account/fall_01/adv392/anuta/promo/effectiveness. htm Effectiveness and success factors of sales promotion Sales promotions are most effective 1. On new brands enjoying and improving competitive trend 2. In conjunction with a sales drive to increase store distribution 3. When used only occasionally 4. In addition to rather than a replacement of brand advertising. These four conditions were taken from J. O. Peckhams list from Wheel of Marketing published in 1977. (Shuhltz 1982). The real challenge is now to see whether these conditions have changed resulting in sales promotions being effective in other situations and not effective in those described above over time. No research was found not confirm these conditions. Research (based on empirical study of most successful sales promotional campaigns) indicates that several variables are playing a very important role in determining the effectiveness of sales promotion. One of the main correlate of successful promotions is greater sales force support and trade support (Hardy 1986). Other factors that are considered somewhat less important relative to sales force and trade support is incentive level that that particular promotion gives (Hardy 1986). How to evaluate effectiveness One of the approaches to evaluate sales promotions recently discussed in the literature recently is based on the fact that sales promotion is merely an alternative element of a companys communication package, so the extrapolation of the concepts of communication into the sales promotion phere is very appropriate. As with advertising and other forms of media, promotions speak directly to the consumer and the major function then becomes the one of communication. (See objectives of sales promotions). Determining the effectiveness of a particular promotion can be a matter of how well the plan communicates with the intended consumer. In other words, companies can gain a better und erstanding of their customers and the effectiveness of their promotional plans by understanding the communication elements triggered by their plan. Gardener, Trivedi 1998) Models / Measurements of Sales Promotions As I mentioned in the beginning of my paper the effects of sales promotion are more measurable than for example effects of advertising, especially nowadays with all the scanned data available through retailers. The possibility of measuring to predict sales promotion was first mentioned by Lee Adler in as early as 1963. He presents one of the first methods/models of measuring effectiveness of sales promotion, where he correlates the objectives of each form of sales promotion with the specific method of measurement. Lee Adler, 1963). However, surprisingly enough quantitative analysis of sales promotion activities have not led to the same level of sophistications that found in advertising decision making models. The reason for that might be that for a long time sales promotio n was perceived as playing secondary role to advertising and personal selling; some early definitions of sales promotion presented in the beginning of this paper clearly indicate that. In spite of this there are several classical models of sales promotion that were developed decade or two ago but are still used analyzing sales promotions. The Kuehn-Rohlov model This is the learning brand-switching model that are designed to evaluate promotions in several ways first they show who is attracted by the promotions, and then separate the ones that have higher pre-purchase probability. The authors also demonstrate how to use the model to study the relationship among deal type, brand, and product-to-product repurchases for both new buyers and for existing customers. Rao-Linnen Model This model was developed on the base of the franchise-retail environment, and hough it is still not clear whether the model can be used outside franchise-retailing environment it has number of crucial characteristics. One of the most important characteristics of this model is that is able to deal with multiple simultaneous promotions and shows how joint effects of multiple simultaneous promotions can be handled. It is the first model that deals with the joint competitive effects and the joint effects of several promotions simultaneously. Littles Brandaid Promotional Model This is part of the Brandaid aggregate marketing model developed by Little. He actually looks at two contracts promotional time and promotional response function. The idea behind the model is that when consumers know that there is a promotion coming they might postpone the buying of the product. One of the aspects that receives increasing attention in the promotional modeling in promotional expenditures. How much to spend on sales promotion relative to advertising was the topic of several researches done for the last 20 years. Other important considerations in sales promotion One of the areas of sales promotion that are still under discussion and that deserve to be mentioned separately due to its high importance is long-term effects of sales promotion. Many years it was argued that promotional activities have only short-term effect on sales and brand preferences whereas advertising essentially builds on brand equity. However some modern research challenges this view. There is some published work that studies the long run effects of promotions and advertising. Another important aspect of sales promotion is customers attitude towards sales promotional activities. Again, one of the spread conceptions is that consumers really they dont remember promotional offers, dont understand the effect and benefits of all the promotional activities. Number of findings in research prove this case, for example Scott et all (1992), Dickson and Sawyer (1990) found that consumers in our study appear to remember information about promotions very poorly, they were not able to identify the depth of the price cuts. Dickson and Sawyer (1982) suggested number of psychological models of consumer response to promotional activities. The implications of this models give an insight into short-term versus long-term communication effect of sales promotions. In respect to the issue of consumer response a research done by Fox, Reddy and Rao 1997 should be mentioned. They studied repetitive promotional stimulus and consumer response to that. Market trends influence on sales promotion In 1987 Douglas Haley identified 10 trends of the market that have showed influence of promotional strategy of companies. Some of those trends are valid till now. 1. Promotion Proliferation there are many forms and combinations of sales promotions techniques that are being used nowadays. Their relative importance might change over time but the fact is that they are growing both in terms of the money spent on them and in variety, that includes uses of new media and new forms of communications. 2. Scanned data nowadays we possess incredible amount of very valuable information obtained via scanners in the retailing stores. The industry have the technology to track the purchases, however it hasnt really discovered the ways to use this data very efficient. This definitely presents a real challenge for future research. 3. Decreasing response time this works both for the consumers and for the companies. With the improving communication channels and the increase of the speed of communication process (here one might argue with the increase of pace of life in general) consumers are responding faster to the promotional offers, if they are interested. The same principle holds for the competitors response. companies tend to react faster to the promotional offers of their rival, decreasing therefore the amount of return on the initial promotional offer of competitor (see the prisoners dilemmas spiral). 4. On-line promotions New challenge While writing about the sales promotion nowadays, one cant ignore the issue of increasing sales promotional activities online. This is very important and valuable component of dot. com operations. As indicated in Table 2 [pic] Coupons and other type of promotions have very important role in driving traffic to the website and in overall companys operations. There are reasonable amount of research published in the area of online sales promotion, however most of them carry over the same problem as research on sales promotion in general research done in the area of sales promotion focus on particular element of promotional mix for example online coupons or frequent mile programs. Yet, there is a clear need for developing general theoretical base and models for online promotions. Potential areas of research 1. Combining attitude data with scanner data: Unfortunately now scanner data lack consumer attitudes data which is considered to be more stable and long run predictors of choice than are short run marketing activities. In this respect two important directions are being developed now. First, some companies already are beginning to collect attitudinal data from scanner panel members. Second, models for combining stated preferences with revealed preferences are being developed, this combination of psychometric and scanner data will provide invaluable insights into consumer choice behavior. (Gupta 1993) 2. Cross-category analyses: Most of the research studies to date, with a few notable exceptions, have estimated and validated their models using a single data set. According to Gupta extending such analyses to multiple categories will provide at least three benefits. First, it will establish better generalizability of results across different product categories. Second, it will allow to study consumers choice of a shopping basket. Thrid, such analyses will be useful to understand the store choice and traffic issues. 4. Optimal decisions: The empirically based models are primarily descriptive in nature and though what-if simulations can provide a sense of good or bad decision strategies, this is not always true and as efficient as we want that to be. So one of the possible directions of research to develop normative models that use the results of the descriptive models as the basis to generate optimal marketing mix decisions. Gupta 1993) Limitations of this review As it was mentioned in the beginning of this paper it was intended to be general overview of the academic literature on sales promotion; it was not focused on any of the particular techniques of sales promotion. That is the reason that many of the articles that are focused on some particular technique were not mentioned here. So as the follow up of this literature review there shoul d be more done to uncover what we really know about the effectiveness, application and models for each of the vehicles of sales promotion. Another limitation of this paper is that though in some parts of the paper trade promotions are mentioned, I was not particularly focused on the distinguishing between promotions targeted on consumers and on the trade. This is another possible direction of the literature review. Finally third limitation of the paper, as I see that comes from the overall problem spot on sales promotional research generalization issues. Many of the researches cited here done on particular products or product category. However in most of the cases the authors expressed the confidence of possible generalization of the results. Otherwise, if the results were very specific for the product category or research conditions, I didnt include that in this review. Ailawadi Kusum, Paul Farris and Mark Parry Explaining Variations in Advertising and Promotional Costs/Sales Ratio: A reanalysis Journal of Marketing, 61 (January) pp. 93-96 Balasumbamanian S. and Kumar V. (1990) Analyzing Variations in Advertising and Promotional Expenditures: Key Correlates in Consumer, Industrial and Service Marketing Journal of Marketing, 54 (April) pp. 57-68 Balasumbamanian S. and Kumar V. 1997) Explaining Variations in Advertising and Promotional Costs/Sales Ratio: A reanalysis Journal of Marketing, 61 (January) pp. 85-92 Desiraju Ramarao (2001) New Product Introductions, Slotting Allowances, and Retailer Discretion Journal of Retailing 71, Issue 3, (Fall) p. 335 Dickson, Peter and Alan Sawyer (1990), Point of Purchase Behavior and Price Perceptions of Supermarket Shoppers Journal of Marketing, 54 (July), 42-53 Dobson, Joe, Alice Tyb out, Brian Sternal (1978) Impact of Deals and Deals Retraction on Brand Switching: Journal of Marketing Research, 15 (February) 72-81 Engel J. F. , H. G. Wales, and Warshaw Promotional strategy Irwin 1967 Gardener, Elizabeth; Trivedi, Minakshi A communication framework to evaluate sales promotion strategies. Journal of Advertising Research, May/Jun98, Vol. 38 Issue 3, p67-72. Gupta, Sunil (1988) Impact of Sales Promotions on When, What, and How Much to Buy. Journal of Marketing Research, 30 (November), Issue 4, p. 342-355 Gupta, Sunil (1993) Reflections on `Impact of Sales Promotions on When, What, and How Much to Buy. Journal of Marketing Research, 30 (November), Issue 4, p522-24 Hardy G. Kenneth Key factors for Manufacturers Sales Promotions in Packaged Goods Journal of Marketing, 50 (July 1986), 13-23 Haley Douglas (1987), Trends that influence Sales Promotion Industry, 1987 Nielsen Researcher. Northbrook, Ill. , 1986/87 Kotler, Philip, Marketing Management: Analysis, Planning, Implementation and Control, 6th ed. Englewood Cliffs NJ: Prentice Hall 1988 Lee Adler Sales Promotion Effectiveness Can be measured Journal of Marketing, 29 (January 1963), 69-70 Neslin Scott, John Quelch, Caroline Henderson Consumer Promotions and the acceleration of product purchase. in Research on Sales Promotion: Collected Papers, ed. K. Jocz, Marketing Science Institute 1000 Cambridge MA 1984 pp. 22-46 Neslin Scott and Robert Shoemaker (1989) An alternative explanation for Lower Repeat Rates After Promotional Purchases Journal of Marketing Research, 26 (May) 205-213 Random House Unabridged Dictionary (1983), Random House NY, 1983 second edition Sawyer Alan, Peter Dickson Psychological pe rspectives on consumer response to sales promotion in Research on Sales Promotion: Collected Papers, Ed. K. Jocz, Marketing Science Institute 1000 Cambridge MA 1984 pp. 1-21 Scott Davis , J. Inman and Leigh McAllister (1992) Promotion Has a negative effect on Brand Evaluations Or does it? Additional Disconfirming Evidence Journal of Marketing Research, 29 (February) 143- 148 Shultz Don E. , William A. Robinson Sales Promotion Management Crain Books, Chicago IL, 1982